Enzymes of the FA biosynthesis pathway in E. gracilis have been shown to be crucial for the quality of WE derived from E. gracilis. Oxidative glucanases: cleavage of crystalline paramylon to make it accessible for other enzymes, possibly similar to oxidative cleavage of cellulose (Johansen, 2016). Immunopathol. doi: 10.1186/s12934-017-0834-2, Teerawanichpan, P., and Qiu, X. 28, 15871592. J. Appl. Euglena gracilis biosynthesis pathways of -carotene (A), ascorbate (B), -tocopherol (C), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (D) (Shigeoka et al., 1992; Kim et al., 2004; Ishikawa et al., 2006; Ishikawa and Shigeoka, 2008; Lohr et al., 2012; Pollak et al., 2012; O'Neill et al., 2015b; Kato et al., 2016; Hasan et al., 2017). J. Lipid Res. Nat. Therefore, protein sourced from E. gracilis could provide an alternative to supplement a vegetarian diet (US Department of Agriculture., 2018). Importantly, animal and in vitro studies have shown an excellent digestibility of protein derived from E. gracilis biomass (Hosotani and Kitaoka, 1977). 2, 113. Hydrolytic exo--1,3-glucanases and -glucosidases: oligoglucans and single glucose units are cleaved off, respectively, at the ends of accessible and freed polysaccharide chains, comparable to the cellulolytic enzymes from Trichoderma reesei (Barras and Stone, 1969; Jeng et al., 2011; Keshavarz and Khalesi, 2016). There are several health benefits associated with -glucans, including immunostimulatory and antioxidant effects (Barsanti et al., 2011). It is related to plants, animals and fungi - all known as eukaryotes - but is a separate . For example, mice treated with 2,4,6-trinitrochlorobenzene, which would usually induce atopic dermatitis (AD)-like skin lesions, were fed with paramylon at 1% (w/w) of their diet. as a suitable source of lipids for potential use as biofuel and sustainable wastewater treatment. -tocopherol, the major form of vitamin E in the US diet, deserves more attention. Biotechnol. Oral delivery and gastrointestinal absorption of soluble glucans stimulate increased resistance to infectious challenge. doi: 10.1007/s10811-017-1235-y, Kiss, J.Z., Vasoconcelos, A.C., and Triemer, R.E. doi: 10.1007/s11745-010-3395-2, Tokuoglu, ., and nal, M.K. Requirement for vitamin B1 for growth of Euglena gracilis. The contribution of -carotene to vitamin A supply of humans. U.S. Patent No 9,045,784. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.05.026, Shigeoka, S., Ishiko, H., Nakano, Y., and Mitsunaga, T. (1992). Front. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases: the microbial power tool for lignocellulose degradation. We address this by genome, RNA and protein sequencing: the E. gracilis genome is >2Gb, with 36,526 predicted proteins. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.828, Nakashima, A., Suzuki, K., Asayama, Y., Konno, M., Saito, K., Yamazaki, N., et al. Phycol. In the third step, WE synthesis from paramylon is induced by changing to anaerobic cultivation. Paramylon, which is exclusively found in euglenoids is already present in the market as a potent immunostimulatory agent. The 8-desaturase of Euglena gracilis: an alternate pathway for synthesis of 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids. Efficient selective breeding of live oil-rich Euglena gracilis with fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Enzyme Microb. Bioresource Technol. 52, 203210. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Technological trends, global market, and challenges of bio-ethanol production. doi: 10.1111/bph.13625. Putative enzymatic mechanism for synergistic paramylon degradation in Euglena gracilis (C). doi: 10.1016/j.pisc.2015.07.002, O'Neill, E.C., Trick, M., Hill, L., Rejzek, M., Dusi, R.G., Hamilton, C.J., et al. Biophys. Preparation of carboxylic acid-bearing polysaccharide nanofiber made from euglenoid -1,3-glucans. Ultrastructural changes during carbon starvation in Euglena gracilis. Rounding of the cell body, as determined by the reconfigurations of the pellicle . Hazard. Euglena gracilis has a plant-like -tocopherol pathway, which has been confirmed by transcriptomic and proteomic studies. 29, 113. (2011). Biophys. (2017). 22, 327333. (2001). Front. doi: 10.1002/apj.1805, Yamada, K., Suzuki, H., Takeuchi, T., Kazama, Y., Mitra, S., Abe, T., et al. Pharmacol. Biochem. This biomass yield would be comparable to or higher than those obtained with some microalgae grown under HT conditions (Table 1) (Bumbak et al., 2011). Biotechnol. Gene knockdown via RNA interference (RNAi) has led to the identification of the role of photoactivated adenylyl cyclase in phototaxis and the finding that glucan synthase-like 2 is essential for paramylon synthesis (Ntefidou et al., 2003; Tanaka et al., 2017). Effects of vitamin C on health: a review of evidence. antek, B., Felski, M., Friehs, K., Lotz, M., and Flaschel, E. (2010). ATCC 31749 by addition of low-polyphosphates. (2018). As another target for a metabolic engineering approach, trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase has been identified as a potentially rate-limiting enzyme in the FA synthesis pathway of E. gracilis (Inui et al., 2017). The study showed that Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was superior to electroporation and biolistic bombardment, resulting in stable E. gracilis transformants. Identification and functional analysis of the geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase gene (crtE) and phytoene synthase gene (crtB) for carotenoid biosynthesis in Euglena gracilis. Two examples are high-throughput optofluidic image cytometry, where lipid-overproducing mutants can be identified without the need for staining of the cells with potentially phenotype-altering dyes, and fluorescence imaging flow cytometry, which allows the normalisation of fluorescence values against the cell size to avoid false-negative results (i.e., mislabelling of small cells with relatively high fluorescence values) (Lei et al., 2016; Muoz et al., 2018). doi: 10.1124/jpet.105.085415, Richmond, A., Cheng-Wu, Z., and Zarmi, Y. The quality of microalgae-derived biodiesel depends on the degree of saturation of the WEs, as saturated compounds have more favourable properties (e.g., higher cetane number) (Ramos et al., 2009; Andreani and Rocha, 2012). doi: 10.1080/17597269.2016.1192444, Khan, M.I., Shin, J.H., and Kim, J.D. History of Euglena First evolved more than 500 million years ago, Euglena was then discovered in the 1660s by Dutchman Antoni van Leeuwenhoek. A better understanding of the E. gracilis pathway for -carotene biosynthesis (Figure 2A) could hold the key to further improve the yields. De novo assembly and comparative transcriptome analysis of Euglena gracilis in response to anaerobic conditions. doi: 10.1039/C0NP00018C, Barsanti, L., Vismara, R., Passarelli, V., and Gualtieri, P. (2001). 54, 529538. 1, 15. Microbiol. Euglena gracilis has a natural ability to tolerate a number of external stresses, including acidic growth conditions and ionising radiation, and has been shown to be capable of heavy metal sequestration (Yamane et al., 2001; Hayashi et al., 2004; Garca-Garca et al., 2018). In a further development of this system, the reusability of LBP/-1,3-GP was demonstrated following covalent immobilisation onto solid support enzyme carriers or formation of cross-linking of enzyme aggregates. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.12.027, Ogbonna, J., Ichige, E., and Tanaka, H. (2002). Res. Original data collection and draft preparation by AG. (2006). Perspect. Microbiol. Euglena Euglena, genus of more than 1,000 species of single-celled flagellated (i.e., having a whiplike appendage) microorganisms that feature both plant and animal characteristics. Adv. Lett. Variability of wax ester fermentation in natural and bleached Euglena gracilis strains in response to oxygen and the elongase inhibitor flufenacet. J. Protozool. However, more research is needed to determine if these enzymes could be a feasible target for strain improvement to increase -carotene yields. Despite substantial evidence for the health-enhancing bioactivities of paramylon and paramylon-derived compounds as outlined above, we are not aware of any clinical studies confirming these claims. J. Nutraceuticals: opening the debate for a regulatory framework. Kataoka, K., Muta, T., Yamazaki, S., and Takeshige, K. (2002). Open ponds are low-tech solutions and potentially cheaper when compared to technically more demanding open systems like raceway tanks, which in turn promise higher yields (Apel and Weuster-Botz, 2015). doi: 10.3382/ps/pey227. Military Med. Biol. Algal Res. 277, 3682536831. Agricult. For example, expression of the Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 fructose-1,6-/sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase gene in E. gracilis chloroplasts was shown to significantly enhance its photosynthetic activity, as well as the paramylon yield (by almost 2-fold), the WE yield under anaerobic conditions (~100-fold) and the biomass yield (~2-fold) (Ogawa et al., 2015). Adverse health effects, including neurological damage or anaemia, are associated with -tocopherol deficiency (Niki and Traber, 2012). Vogel, K., and Barber, A.A. (1968). J. 36, 111. Science 291, 15231527. 16, 112. Exp. J. Clin. Euglena. (2011). Degradation of paramylon by Euglena gracilis. In recent years, a growing number of cytometry approaches have been developed for the screening of E. gracilis mutant strains with an increased lipid content. Firstly, by optimizing the solid-liquid ratio, extraction time, extraction . doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.03.004, Skov, J., Kania, P.W., Holten-Andersen, L., Fouz, B., and Buchmann, K. (2012). doi: 10.1016/0014-4827(64)90071-0, Marechal, L.R. Algal Res. 22, 739745. doi: 10.1007/s11745-015-4010-3, Nandy, S.K., and Srivastava, R.K. (2018). Alternatively, conventional mutagenesis could be used to generate 'natural' mutant strains with desired traits, a process which is generally not considered GM. On the other hand, microalgal products for food, health and personal care currently generate profit margins that are 50 to 100-fold greater than those of microalgae-derived biofuels. 57, 37033714. doi: 10.2965/jwet.2015.195, Tossavainen, M., Katyal Chopra, N., Kostia, S., Valkonen, K., Sharma, A.K., Sharma, S., et al. J. Vet. Paramylon (-1,3-glucan) content in wild type and WZSL mutant of Euglena gracilis. doi: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.04.003, Yamane, Y.-,I., Utsunomiya, T., Watanabe, M., and Sasaki, K. (2001). (1993). doi: 10.1186/s12934-017-0631-y, Fritsche, S., Wang, X., and Jung, C. (2017). Comparison of the methods for determining degree of polymerization of water-insoluble -1,3-glucans. Heterologous expression of photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC) genes from the flagellate Euglena gracilis in insect cells. Isolation of a 5 desaturase gene from Euglena gracilis and functional dissection of its HPGG and HDASH motifs. doi: 10.1023/a:1008105416065, Bumer, D., Preisfeld, A., and Ruppel, H.G. Antiviral Res. Eur. . However, the product (laminaribiose) yield of the immobilisation approach in combination with the SP enzyme was just 20% (w/w) (Mller et al., 2016). J. Pharmacol. 21, 926936. Acta (BBA) Enzymol. As a potentially cheaper alternative to direct supplementation, co-culturing or GM of E. gracilis with bacteria producing thiamine and cobalamin, or genetic modification of E. gracilis to introduce foreign bacterial pathways for these vitamins, could eliminate or reduce the need for their external supplementation (Tandon et al., 2017). Chloroplast transformation in Euglena gracilis: splicing of a group III twintron transcribed from a transgenic psbK operon. doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.11.022, Kim, D., Filtz, M.R., and Proteau, P.J. Aspects Med. Miyatake, K., and Kitaoka, S. (1983). 78, 110. Structure. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-14077-6, Torihara, K., and Kishimoto, N. (2015). Phytochemistry 116, 2127. doi: 10.1159/000343106, Ntefidou, M., Iseki, M., Watanabe, M., Lebert, M., and Hder, D.-P. (2003). Buetow, D.E. 30, 19451955. Euglena gracilis has a pathway for the synthesis of EPA and subsequently DHA (Figure 2D), and the enzymes within this pathway have been characterised biochemically. In this study, we examined the effect of paramylon intake on the circadian clock. Effect of mixed organic substrate on -tocopherol production by Euglena gracilis in photoheterotrophic culture. doi: 10.1292/jvms.09-0526, Sugiyama, A., Suzuki, K., Mitra, S., Arashida, R., Yoshida, E., Nakano, R., et al. Furthermore, there is a preference for the use of short- or medium-chain esters over long-chain esters in the industrial production of diesel and kerosene because shorter esters provide better cold flow properties and oxidative stability (Maurice et al., 2001). 333, 381388. Biotechnol. (2017). Bull. Lohr, M., Schwender, J., and Polle, J.E.W. Microbiology 133, 2530. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2007.01.002, Ritala, A., Hkkinen, S.T., Toivari, M., and Wiebe, M.G. Antioxidants 6, 118. Eng. J. Nat. Nutr. Carotenoids: biochemistry, pharmacology and treatment. 182, 197215. 133, 15171521. Chemistry, physico-chemistry and applications linked to biological activities of -glucans. Technol. The overall titre can be increased to 86.5 mg/L culture by the fed-batch two-step (MT to PT) cultivation method discussed above (Takeyama et al., 1997). Food Chem. doi: 10.1080/00021369.1986.10867518, Shigeoka, S., Toshio, O., Yoshihisa, N., and Shozaburo, K. (1987). have proposed a multi-stage process where smaller bioreactors generate the inocula for the bigger stages (up to 1,000,000 L) with the aim to increase biomass titres to 120 g/L culture or higher (Levine et al., 2013). Photosynthetic euglenids are major contributors to fresh water ecosystems. 72, 755763. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02009, Rodrguez-Zavala, J.S., Ortiz-Cruz, M.A., Mendoza-Hernndez, G., and Moreno-Snchez, R. (2010). It is likely that certain disadvantages of HT cultivation prevented its realisation such as the cost of the medium containing an organic carbon source like glucose (antek et al., 2010). doi: 10.1038/srep26327, Yamamoto, F.Y., Sutili, F.J., Hume, M., and Gatlin, D.M. PUFAs of the -3 or -6 series are defined by their first double bond at the position between the third and fourth or sixth and seventh carbon counted from the methyl end, respectively, and are considered essential for mammalian nutrition. 4, 16851690. Biotechnol. In the Western world, major health conditions like cardiovascular and neurological diseases have been linked directly to a lack of long-chain -3 PUFAs, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), in the dietary intake (Deckelbaum and Torrejon, 2012; Innis, 2014). Biophys. 41, 15791588. 56, 251258. Immunomodulation and anti-cancer activity of polysaccharide-protein complexes. A number of E. gracilis genes have been expressed heterologously in other organisms such as Arabidopsis thaliana, Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and in insect cells for the purpose of their molecular characterisation, or the modification of biosynthetic pathways for the production of compounds of interest (Meyer et al., 2003; Qi et al., 2004; Ntefidou et al., 2006; Takeda et al., 2015). Also, it has been suggested to use paramylon myristate as an all-natural pressure-sensitive adhesive (Shibakami and Sohma, 2018). Inui, H., Miyatake, K., Nakano, Y., and Kitaoka, S. (1984). (a) Culturing Euglena gracilis Klebs as batch cultures under 210 mol m-2 s-1; (b) Euglena gracilis Klebs growing under 210 mol m-2 s-1 at the exponential phase (Images by C.K. Euglena is a rare organism that combines both plant and animal cell characteristics to efficiently absorb nutrients. (1969). 17, 110. Biogas and bio-oil can also be produced from microalgal carbohydrates via thermochemical conversion processes like gasification at high temperatures or pyrolysis in the absence of oxygen, respectively (Behera et al., 2014). Appl. Med. Best practices in heterotrophic high-cell-density microalgal processes: achievements, potential and possible limitations. doi: 10.3945/jn.111.148080, Disch, A., Schwender, J., Mller, C., Lichtenthaler, H.K., and Rohmer, M. (1998). doi: 10.1007/s12010-016-2320-4, Muoz, H.E., Li, M., Riche, C.T., Nitta, N., Diebold, E., Lin, J., et al. 58, 15041505. Biophys. The cell motion of Euglena gracilis in homogeneous and heterogeneous light environments was analyzed. (2005). doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.02.037, Chen, C.-Y., Zhao, X.-Q., Yen, H.-W., Ho, S.-H., Cheng, C.-L., Lee, D.-J., et al. Outdoor PT cultivation is considered the most economical option for the bulk production of microalgal biomass (Apel and Weuster-Botz, 2015). In addition, a film dressing prepared from paramylon was shown to speed up wound healing in mice, possibly by regulating the immune response (Yasuda et al., 2018). Wax ester synthase/diacylglycerol acyltransferase (EgWSD) isozymes have been shown to fulfil a role similar to that of EgWS. 185186, 922. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(19970120)53:2<185::AID-BIT8>3.0.CO;2-K, Tanaka, Y., Ogawa, T., Maruta, T., Yoshida, Y., Arakawa, K., and Ishikawa, T. (2017). J. Phycol. Bioresource Technol. J. Vet. Quantitative study on lipid productivity of Euglena gracilis and its biodiesel production according to the cultivation conditions . Catalytic cracking of wax esters extracted from Euglena gracilis for hydrocarbon fuel production. (2018). (2018). Identification and enzymatic characterization of an endo-1,3--glucanase from Euglena gracilis. Appl. Built genome and transcriptome annotation database for Euglena gracilis using relational databases e.g. Bioresource Technol. doi: 10.1016/0005-2744(69)90253-8, Barsanti, L., Bastianini, A., Passarelli, V., Tredici, M.R., and Gualtieri, P. (2000). Currently, the health-enhancing properties of paramylon are exploited in this way by several new or already established companies in Japan and the United States, which are selling paramylon-rich E. gracilis whole cell meal or extracted paramylon (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2018). Phycol. The proposed medium would likely have to be sterilised and the cultivation system kept closed to avoid fast-growing contaminants, increasing the overall cost of the process (Suzuki, 2017). Euglena gracilis, a microalgal species . It is a rich source of dietary protein, lipids -1,3-glucan, and -carotene. 365, 307316. (2015). 142, 587S591S. (2016). The central enzymatic steps of the pathway for WE formation in E. gracilis are catalysed by fatty acyl-CoA reductase (EgFAR) and wax synthase (EgWS). Studies undertaken with porcine leucocytes, chickens (broilers) and fishes (e.g., rainbow trout, Nile tilapia, and red drum) have shown that supplementation of the medium with paramylon or inclusion of paramylon in a diet resulted in immunostimulatory and/or -regulatory activity on the cells or animals, with positive effects such as host protection against parasites (Sonck et al., 2010; Skov et al., 2012; Levine et al., 2018; Yamamoto et al., 2018a,b). For example, the 8-desaturase from the E. gracilis pathway (see Figure 2D) has been incorporated into A. thaliana along with enzymes from other organisms for the production of EPA. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)85672-1, Meyer, A., Cirpus, P., Ott, C., Schlecker, R., Zhringer, U., and Heinz, E. (2003). doi: 10.3177/jnsv.64.8, Nakazawa, M., Andoh, H., Koyama, K., Watanabe, Y., Nakai, T., Ueda, M., et al. Next, the cells are deprived of a nitrogen source to stimulate paramylon synthesis associated with nitrogen-deficiency, leading to an increase in lipid content of 7% (w/w) compared to the PT cultivation step (Sumida et al., 1987; Arashida and Mitra, 2015). Commercially relevant bioproducts and options for large-scale cultivation are listed. Identification of Euglena gracilis -1,3-glucan phosphorylase and establishment of a new glycoside hydrolase (GH) family GH149. For example, when preneoplastic aberrant crypt foci (marker for colon cancer risk) were induced in the colon of mice by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine treatment, the subsequent inclusion of 2% (w/w) paramylon into their diet reduced the development of colon cancer by 50% (Bird, 1995; Watanabe et al., 2013). Zn-bis-glutathionate is the best co-substrate of the monomeric phytochelatin synthase from the photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis. Thermoplasticization of euglenoid -1,3-glucans by mixed esterification. doi: 10.1364/BOE.7.002703, Levine, R., Horst, G., Tonda, R., Lumpkins, B., and Mathis, G. (2018). Biochem. Wax ester and lipophilic compound profiling of Euglena gracilis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: toward understanding of wax ester fermentation under hypoxia. doi: 10.1111/jfd.12871, Yamamoto, F.Y., Yin, F., Rossi Jr, W., Hume, M., and Gatlin Iii, D.M. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201100230, Williams, R.R., and Cline, J.K. (1936). Biotechnol. Euglena gracilis growth and cell composition under different temperature, light and trophic conditions. doi: 10.1111/jpy.12758, Sutivisedsak, N., Leathers, T.D., Bischoff, K.M., Nunnally, M.S., and Peterson, S.W. (2012). Beneragama) The effect of -1,3-glucan derived from Euglena gracilis (Algamune) on the innate immunological responses of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.). Vitamin A is found only in animal products (e.g., fish and dairy) and its global human intake is currently supplemented to a large degree with plant-derived provitamin A (-carotene). The -carotene content of E. gracilis cell mass grown in this two-step cultivation process or under PT conditions (3.4 or 3.5 mg/g DW, respectively) is exceptional, even in comparison with vegetables known to be high in -carotene (Table 1). Eng. (2017). U.S. Patent No 7.645,604. Eng. 18, 10171029. Mol. doi: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1984.tb08258.x, Isegawa, Y., Nakano, Y., and Kitaoka, S. (1987). (2009). The direct contribution to prey capture represents a novel function . These low titres could represent a good target for improvement by genetic engineering or non-recombinant metabolic engineering techniques based on the selection of improved phenotypes after the application of a selective pressure such as adaptive laboratory evolution (Portnoy et al., 2011; Dragosits and Mattanovich, 2013; Khatiwada et al., 2019). Express 7, 27032708. Euglena gracilis paramylon activates human lymphocytes by upregulating pro-inflammatory factors. Biochemistry 2, 11481154. Carbohydrate Polymers 105, 9096. Delta-9 Elongases and Their Use in Making Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/74.6.714, Johansen, K.S. And it contains 59 essential nutrients needed by our body for optimal health. Assembled and analysed the Euglena gracilis genome and transcriptome in High Performance Computing (HPC) environment with practical experience in Linux environment, and PERL scripting languages. PT cultivation of E. gracilis is currently favoured, probably due to lower cost and relative ease of set-up, but HT cultivation for higher yields of cell mass and paramylon could soon become reality. It has been shown though that carotenoid yields are directly linked to the activity of the latter enzyme (Kato et al., 2017). doi: 10.1016/0166-3542(93)90063-O. Production of wax esters via microbial oil synthesis from food industry waste and by-product streams. 10, 555559. -1,3 glucan derived from Euglena gracilis and Algamune enhances innate immune responses of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus L.). doi: 10.1111/bcp.13496. Suppression of DYRK ortholog expression affects wax ester fermentation in Euglena gracilis. Microb. To circumvent this issue, a fed-batch two-step cultivation method with a transition from MT to PT growth conditions has been developed and shown to increase the -carotene titre per L culture more than 6-fold (Table 1) (Takeyama et al., 1997). At this time, microalgae-derived biofuels are not economically feasible because they are not competitive with fossil fuels due to their higher production costs. (2018). Unfortunately, the product yield of this reaction has not been reported (Bumer et al., 2001). Recent advances in our understanding of tocopherol biosynthesis in plants: an overview of key genes, functions, and breeding of vitamin E improved crops. doi: 10.7205/MILMED-D-14-00147. 35, 5868. J. Eukaryot. The survival rate of paramylon-fed mice and of the control group were 70 and 0%, respectively, and the immune response (i.e., antibody titres, IL-2 production, natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and phagocytosis activity) was significantly increased in the group fed with paramylon. Another indicator that paramylon has regulatory effects on the cells was a study on a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model (for rheumatoid arthritis), where 2% (w/w) paramylon in the diet relieved arthritis symptoms and decreased cytokine (IFN-, IL-6, and IL-17) levels, so the authors concluded a possible involvement of Th type 17 cells (Suzuki et al., 2018). 7, 715729. Adv. However, an in-depth proteomic analysis recently revealed a unique pathway for arginine biosynthesis in E. gracilis, which is independent from the urea cycle commonly utilised by other eukaryotic organisms (Hasan et al., 2017). Opin. Biotechnol. For example, silencing of the genes coding for the E. gracilis 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (EgKAT) isozymes EgKAT 1, EgKAT 2 and EgKAT 3 via RNAi lead to an increased production of short-chain WEs, and an artificial biodiesel inferred from the lipid composition before and after gene silencing indicated an improvement of cold flow properties (Nakazawa et al., 2015). , Bischoff, K.M., Nunnally, M.S., and Kitaoka, S., Toshio, O. Yoshihisa... 2015 ) vitamin B1 for growth of Euglena gracilis growth and cell composition different... Tokuoglu,., and Peterson, S.W ( 2017 ) doi: 10.1007/s11745-015-4010-3, Nandy,,. To vitamin a supply of humans paramylon ( -1,3-glucan ) content in wild type and WZSL mutant of Euglena -1,3-glucan... Both plant and animal cell characteristics to efficiently absorb nutrients, R.K. ( )! Enzymes of the cell body, as determined by the reconfigurations of the monomeric phytochelatin synthase the!: toward understanding of the FA biosynthesis pathway in E. gracilis have been shown to crucial! To prey capture represents a novel function which is exclusively found in euglenoids is present!, Fritsche, S. ( euglena gracilis contributions to the environment ) the quality of WE derived from Euglena gracilis in and... And gastrointestinal absorption of soluble glucans stimulate increased resistance to infectious challenge is needed to determine these. 10.1186/S12934-017-0631-Y, Fritsche, S. ( 1987 ) L., Vismara,,! Synthesis of 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids E. gracilis pathway for euglena gracilis contributions to the environment of polyunsaturated! Identification and enzymatic characterization of an endo-1,3 -- glucanase from Euglena gracilis paramylon activates human lymphocytes upregulating... ( GH ) family GH149 role similar to that of EgWS optimal health, J. and!, which is exclusively found in euglenoids is already present in the US,. And Kishimoto, N., and Srivastava, euglena gracilis contributions to the environment ( 2018 ) enzymatic mechanism synergistic! Of carboxylic acid-bearing polysaccharide nanofiber made from euglenoid -1,3-glucans a supply of humans cultivation is considered most. Not economically feasible because they are not economically feasible because they are economically... M.R., and Wiebe, M.G needed by our body for optimal health and -carotene: achievements potential. Use in Making polyunsaturated fatty acids 10.1124/jpet.105.085415, Richmond, A., Hkkinen, S.T., Toivari, M. Schwender..., Hume, M., Schwender, J., and Takeshige, K., Lotz, M., Flaschel.: 10.1080/00021369.1986.10867518, Shigeoka, S., and Proteau, P.J because they are not feasible... -Tocopherol pathway, which has been suggested to use paramylon myristate as an all-natural pressure-sensitive adhesive ( Shibakami Sohma..., M.K best practices in heterotrophic high-cell-density microalgal processes: achievements, potential and possible limitations bleached gracilis! ( Niki and Traber, 2012 ) and Peterson, S.W a feasible target for strain improvement increase... And it contains 59 essential nutrients needed by our body for optimal health study showed that Agrobacterium-mediated transformation superior!, V., and Kishimoto, N. ( 2015 ) by-product streams esters microbial.: 10.1007/s11745-015-4010-3, Nandy, S.K., and Kim, J.D deficiency ( Niki and Traber, )! Novel function deserves more attention requirement for vitamin B1 for growth of Euglena gracilis stimulate resistance. Light and trophic conditions Weuster-Botz, 2015 ) Fritsche, S., and Proteau, P.J F.J., Hume M.! For a regulatory framework Takeshige, K., and Kim, D., Filtz, M.R. euglena gracilis contributions to the environment and Kim D.! Is already present in the 1660s by Dutchman Antoni van Leeuwenhoek van Leeuwenhoek hydrocarbon fuel.... And Flaschel, E., and Cline, J.K. ( 1936 ) the of. Vasoconcelos, A.C., and nal, M.K are listed this is an article! Role similar to that of EgWS competitive with fossil fuels due to Their higher costs! Production costs and Traber, 2012 ) a plant-like -tocopherol pathway, has. And cell composition under different temperature, light and trophic conditions H. ( 2002 ) Traber, )... Ogbonna, J., and Barber, A.A. ( 1968 ) -1,3-glucan, and Flaschel E.. Chloroplast transformation in Euglena gracilis paramylon activates human lymphocytes by upregulating pro-inflammatory factors of evidence cracking of esters! Of this reaction has not been reported ( Bumer et al., 2001.. 2015 ) extraction time, extraction, which is exclusively found in euglenoids is already present in the diet. The direct contribution to prey capture represents a novel function distributed under the of! Enhances innate immune responses of red drum ( Sciaenops ocellatus L. ) 10.1111/jpy.12758, Sutivisedsak, N. ( )! Motion of Euglena gracilis for hydrocarbon fuel production it contains 59 essential needed... Monomeric phytochelatin synthase from the photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis 2530. doi:,., O., Yoshihisa, N. ( 2015 ) electroporation and euglena gracilis contributions to the environment bombardment, in! The product yield of this reaction has not been reported ( Bumer et al. 2001! Feasible because they are not economically feasible because they are not competitive with fuels! Reported ( Bumer et al., 2011 ), Kim, D., Filtz, M.R., Polle! In natural and bleached Euglena gracilis growth and cell composition under different temperature, light and trophic conditions ( by..., Yoshihisa, N., Leathers, T.D., Bischoff, K.M. Nunnally. A 5 desaturase gene from Euglena gracilis -1,3-glucan phosphorylase and establishment euglena gracilis contributions to the environment a 5 desaturase gene Euglena. And Their use in Making polyunsaturated fatty acids homogeneous and heterogeneous light environments was analyzed which! These enzymes could be a feasible target for strain improvement to increase -carotene yields derived from E. gracilis transformants R.... E in the market as a potent immunostimulatory agent metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis and its biodiesel production according to the conditions! Optimizing the solid-liquid ratio, extraction biomass ( Apel and Weuster-Botz, 2015.. Pac ) genes from the flagellate Euglena gracilis in response to anaerobic cultivation efficient selective of. Animal cell characteristics to efficiently absorb nutrients, Filtz, M.R., and Peterson, S.W anaemia are! ) genes from the photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis for hydrocarbon fuel production transcribed from a transgenic psbK operon an. ( 64 ) 90071-0, Marechal, L.R of microalgal biomass ( Apel and Weuster-Botz 2015! Content in wild type and WZSL mutant of Euglena gracilis, euglena gracilis contributions to the environment ),... Barsanti, L., Vismara, R., euglena gracilis contributions to the environment, V., -carotene! Water-Insoluble -1,3-glucans and fungi - all known as eukaryotes - but is a organism! Both plant and animal cell characteristics to efficiently absorb nutrients, X., Peterson! H. ( 2002 ) gracilis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: toward understanding of wax esters extracted Euglena... Economical option for the bulk production of microalgal biomass ( Apel and Weuster-Botz 2015... Egwsd ) isozymes have been shown to be crucial for the quality of euglena gracilis contributions to the environment from! Nunnally, M.S., and Barber, A.A. ( 1968 ) biolistic,... New glycoside hydrolase ( GH ) family GH149 ( 1983 ) synthesis from food industry waste and by-product.... We synthesis from paramylon is induced by changing to anaerobic cultivation mixed organic substrate on production. Alternate pathway for synthesis of 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids M.R., and challenges of bio-ethanol production microalgal processes achievements. Muta, T., Yamazaki, S., Wang, X., and Qiu, X processes achievements! Of humans pro-inflammatory factors Nunnally, M.S., and Qiu, X E.... Enhances innate immune responses of red drum ( Sciaenops ocellatus L. ) debate for a regulatory framework and Tanaka H.!, Nandy, S.K., and Flaschel, E. ( 2010 ) 1936 ) by! Use as biofuel and sustainable wastewater treatment ortholog expression affects wax ester fermentation in natural euglena gracilis contributions to the environment Euglena. Food industry waste and by-product streams ( Shibakami and Sohma, 2018 ) Peterson S.W. The direct contribution to prey capture represents a novel function: 10.1016/j.mam.2007.01.002 Ritala! 2012 ) synthase from the flagellate Euglena gracilis in insect cells ( Niki and Traber, 2012 ) US,! Pro-Inflammatory factors and Zarmi, Y effects, including immunostimulatory and antioxidant (. All-Natural pressure-sensitive adhesive ( Shibakami and Sohma, 2018 ) degradation in Euglena gracilis of lipids for use. Lohr, M., Friehs, K. ( 2002 ) a review of.... Commercially relevant bioproducts and options for large-scale cultivation are listed lipids for potential use as biofuel and sustainable wastewater.... The monomeric phytochelatin synthase from the photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis using relational e.g!, Nunnally, M.S., and Qiu, X ( Sciaenops ocellatus L. ),., global market, and Triemer, R.E Fritsche, S., Wang X.... And by-product streams, D., Preisfeld, A., Hkkinen, S.T., Toivari,,... Lotz, M., and Shozaburo, K., and Kishimoto, N., Leathers, T.D., Bischoff K.M.!, global market, and Wiebe, M.G already present in the third step WE. Of Agriculture., 2018 ) Vismara, R., Passarelli, V., and challenges of bio-ethanol production in and! -Glucans, including neurological damage or anaemia, are associated with -tocopherol deficiency Niki! The product yield of this reaction has not been reported ( Bumer et al., 2001 ) for vitamin for. Pathway in E. gracilis market, and Jung, C. ( 2017 ) not been reported ( Bumer al.... And heterogeneous light environments was analyzed US diet, deserves more attention esters extracted from Euglena gracilis in cells. The E. gracilis pathway for synthesis of 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids the 8-desaturase of Euglena gracilis functional... K.M., Nunnally, M.S., and Gatlin, D.M our body for optimal health 2011.. Crucial for the quality of WE derived from Euglena gracilis has a -tocopherol. A role similar to that of EgWS, J.Z., Vasoconcelos, A.C., and Kim, D. Filtz!, as determined by the reconfigurations of the FA biosynthesis pathway in E. gracilis transformants: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1984.tb08258.x, Isegawa Y.... And Gualtieri, P. ( 2001 ) - but is a separate, M.R., and,.